Home – Home – Jornals – Geography and Natural Resources 2019 number 2

The properties of the coals of Tuva and Mongolia are considered for the purpose of organizing the processing technology for the production of coal smokeless briquettes that reduce the formation of smog and air pollution from private houses with coal heating. Experimental and industrial thermolysis units have been developed and manufactured for conducting research works aimed at the production of smokeless fuel. Fuel briquettes were obtained by pressing the solid products of coal thermolysis (semi-coke) at an elevated temperature in the periodic mode on hydraulic presses in Russia and Mongolia.

The structural, morphological and electrochemical properties of nanocomposite materials of the type of a highly porous carbon matrix filled with Co₃O₄ are investigated. The effect of the filler preparation method (thermal decomposition of cobalt (II) hydroxide or cobalt (II) azide) in matrix pores on the characteristics of composites was considered. The composition, morphology, phase compositions of the composites, the stoichiometry of fillers, disperse and porous structures, as well as electric capacitance characteristics of the carbon matrix, precursor composites and nanostructured C/Co₃O₄ composites were studied using various physicochemical methods. It is established that the composites are formed through the deposition of nanoparticles of filler precursor and, during their thermal decomposition, of the target filler Co₃O₄ in the pores of three size groups (2-3, 7-12, and ~20 nm), and through the formation of the aggregates of filler particles on the external surface of the matrix. The nature of the effect of filler on the electric capacity of the composite depends on the method of composite formation: the capacity decreases in the composites obtained by thermal decomposition of Co(OH)₂ precursor and, quite contrary, increases in the composites formed by thermal decomposition of Co(N₃)₂. This feature, discovered for the first time, may be related to the effect of the method of composite preparation on filler stoichiometry (the Co²⁺/Co³⁺ ratio) as determined by X-ray diffraction: the deviation of the stoichiometry from the formula-based relations between CoO and Co₂O₃ proceeds towards an increase in CoO fraction when the azide precursor is used, and towards an increase in the fraction of Co₂O₃ when the hydroxide precursor is used.

The results presented herein were obtained by the scientists from Kazakhstan in research areas concerning the manufacture of carbon fibres by means of electrospinning from coal tar pitch and polyacrylonitrile, making coke from heavy oil residues, investigation of the composition and structures of asphaltenes extracted from the natural bitumen of the Munayly-Mola deposit. The precursor for carbon fibres was coal tar, a by-product of the treatment of coal from the Shubarkol deposit. The physicochemical characteristics and the composition of coke obtained from goudron at the Pavlodar petrochemical plant as a result of preliminary demetallization and desulphuration are demonstrated. It is established that the structure of asphaltenes from natural bitumen is more ordered and non-amorphous.

The correlation between the energy threshold of laser ignition of coals and the degree of their aromaticity was investigated. The ¹³C CPMAS NMR spectra of different marks of coal were recorded. Quantitative data on the distribution of carbon over structural fragments were obtained from these spectra with the help of modeling. It is shown that an increase in the rank is accompanied by an increase in the intensity of the signals of aromatic carbon and a decrease in the intensity of aliphatic carbon signals. In addition, with an increase in the rank, the content of CH₂, C-O-C, COOH functional groups in coal decreases. The direction of the correlation between the energy threshold of ignition of hard coals and the degree of their aromaticity was determined, and the strength of the correlation was established.

Samples of the composition CeCuO_1.5/C (C = Sibunite, C-Al₂O₃, Taunite, oxidized Taunite) were prepared by incipient wetness impregnation in order to develop new catalysts based on supported bimetallic oxide nanoparticles for oxidative transformations of sulphur compounds. Using FTIR spectroscopy and thermal analysis in combination with mass spectrometry, the effect of the nature of the support and its oxidative treatment on the functional composition of the support surface and its thermal stability was studied. Among the supports studied, the sample on Taunite proved to be the most stable to decomposition. The thermal stability of Taunite decreases after oxidative treatment and the introduction of metal precursor salts.

The results of the studies aimed at the improvement of the mode of flotation of flocculated coal due to the application of Sinterol, a new modifying reagent, are reported. Coals from the basins of the Russian Federation with different degrees of organic mass mineralization were used as the initial coal samples. When applying the modifying reagent Sinterol in the amount of (1-3) · 10^-3 kg/t and simultaneously reducing the total consumption of reagents by 13.0 % on average (from 3.000 to 2.613 kg/t), the concentrate yield increased by 2.5-8.5 %, the ash content of the concentrate decreased by 2.7-3.0 % the extraction of combustible mass into the concentrate increased by 2.9-7.1 %. The ash content of the waste increased by 2.9-12.3 % and was in the range of 72.6-82.0 %. A decrease in the ash content of the concentrate and an increase in the ash content of the waste with an increase in the modifying reagent input are explained by the flocculating effect of the reagent on the mineral particles of the pulp, which is important for flotation of hard-to-enrich coal fines containing a large amount of clay substances. The efficiency of the Sinterol flocculant reagent at its low consumption was revealed. The reason is the prevailing enlargement of the particles of mineral impurities and a decrease in their floatability together with the organic mass of coals.

Humic acids are highly oxidized organic compounds originated from plants and coals. Therefore, the coals of the Shivee-Ovoo and Ulaan-Ovoo deposits were analyzed by proximate, ultimate, and FTIR spectroscopic analysis. It was confirmed that the Shivee-Ovoo coal is a low-rank lignite coal of B2 mark, and the Ulaan-Ovoo coal is subbituminous coal. So, they are suitable raw materials for obtaining humic acids. The yield of humic acids from the Shivee-Ovoo coal is 23.2 % and their solubility in water is 78.05 %. The yield of humic acids of the Ulaan-Ovoo coal is 14.5 % and the solubility in water is 23.20 %. The yield of humic acids and the water solubility of the Shivee-Ovoo coal are much higher than those of the Ulaan-Ovoo coal, because the coal of Shivee-Ovoo deposit is a highly oxidized brown coal, while the coal of the Ulaan-Ovoo deposit is a higher rank subbituminous coal. These results show that the humic acids of both kinds of coal have good penetration ability in soil and higher bioavailability for plants. The IR spectra of humic acids of both coals and their humic acids show that the organic matter of humic acids consists mainly of aliphatic and aromatic compounds with carboxylic (-COOH), carbonyl (>CO), hydroxyl (-OH) and etheric (-O-) groups, which are characteristic of highly oxidized organic matter. Humic acids of the Shivee-Ovoo coal exhibit a high biological activity in relation to Iren wheat seeds. The highest biological activity was detected for humic acid concentration of 0.005 %.

Seven samples of sapropelite coals from the deposits differing from each other in the catagenetic maturity of the organic matter were studied by means of solid-state ¹³C NMR spectroscopy. Analysis of the obtained analytical data showed that carbon in the organic mass of the samples is largely concentrated in aliphatic structures since the most intense signals in the ¹³C NMR spectrum fall on the region of 0-50 ppm, corresponding to the absorption of carbon of methyl and methylene groups, as well as tertiary and quaternary carbon atoms. The largest amount of aliphatic carbon was found in the sample, which is characterized by the highest values of the yield of volatiles and the H/C atomic ratio. It was found that with a decrease in the H/C atomic ratio in the samples, their degree of aromaticity increases against the background of a decrease in the proportion of aliphatic structures and carbon bonded to oxygen by a single bond.

Hybrid carbon materials based on carbon nanofibres and ceramic blocks made of Al₂O₃, ZrO₂, TiO₂, and aluminosilicate (AlSi) were prepared by means of catalytic chemical vapour deposition of methane over Ni⁰ particles supported on monolithic carriers. The initial ceramic carriers, catalysts and hybrid materials were studied by means of XRD, TEM, SEM, IR spectroscopy, thermal analysis and low-temperature nitrogen adsorption. By varying the reaction conditions and catalyst composition, samples with the carbon phase content from 1.7 to 12 mass % were obtained. It is established that the activity of catalysts depends on the chemical nature of the carrier and increases in the sequence TiO₂ < Al₂O₃ < AlSi < ZrO₂. The chemical composition and acid-base properties of the carrier surface determine the structure and morphology of the carbon phase. Carbon nanofibers modify the porous structure of ceramic materials, causing an increase in the specific surface area and mechanical strength of the resulting hybrids compared with the original ceramic carriers.

The paper presents the results of a study of the influence of the method of extraction processing of brown coal on the output of brown coal bitumen. It was shown that O-alkylating treatment allows increasing the yield of bitumoids, and the use of ultrasonic treatment during alkylation not only promotes further increase in the yield of bitumoids (up to 52.0 %) but also reduces the process duration from 6 to 0.5 h. Biologically active substances were identified in the composition of bitumen samples by means of gas chromatography - mass spectrometry.

An attempt is made to comprehend the essence of the measures taken by mankind in the framework of the struggle against the results of anthropogenic influence on the environment. The issues of using financial mechanisms for reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases to achieve the global goals of curbing climate warming have been investigated. Among financial instruments, in particular, the use of carbon tax is considered in the world practice and under Russian conditions. The importance of using market-based carbon pricing mechanisms as effective measures to control the total global carbon load is stressed. The leading role of the activities carried out by the EU countries in this direction is shown. In particular, the results of the experience of thirty years in Sweden in the application of the carbon tax were studied. The documents related to the strategic planning in Russia aimed at reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases were evaluated. The analysis of the main mechanisms providing for the measures to achieve the strategic goals of reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases into the environment was carried out. The necessity of using financial instruments in regulating the activities of economic entities to ensure the reduction of negative impacts in the long-term outlook is emphasized. Measures are presented to tighten the regulation of carbon dioxide emissions in the Russian Federation.

In connection with the recent centennial (2018) of Russian geomorphology, we examined the history of the origin and de velopment of geomorphological knowledge in this country. We analyzed the main stages of the formation of national geomorphol ogy: from the prehistory (17 ^th -18 ^th centuries) and the incubation period (19 ^th -early 20 ^th centuries) to an intense development in the Soviet period (most of the 20 ^th century) and the modern stage. We distinguished the main driving forces of this process: the enormous size of the country and the corresponding diversity of landscapes, a high economic need for development of natural resources, and a need for effective systematization of knowledge in the field of Earth sciences. We also emphasized the continu ity and close connection of the development of geomorphology in Russia/USSR and in other countries. Particular attention was paid to the Russian geomorphological schools concentrated in major educational and scientific centers in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Irkutsk, Kazan, Tomsk, etc. National researchers of these schools promote important scientific fields, such as structural geomor phology (morphotectonics), climatic (exogenous) geomorphology, geomorphological systematics and cartography, evolutionary geomorphology, morphometry, dynamic and engineering geomorphology, environmental, social geomorphology, etc. Separately, we mentioned the contribution to the Russian geomorphological science by famous scientists: P.A. Kropotkin, V.V. Dokuchaev, D.N. Anuchin, M.M. Tetyaev, Ya.S. Edelstein, I.S. Shchukin, K.K. Markov, S.S. Schulz, I.P. Gerasimov, Yu.A. Meshcheryakov, D.A. Timofeev, O.K. Leontyev, Yu.G. Simonov, N.A. Florensov, G.F. Ufimtsev, A.N. Lastochkin, and many others. Finally, we emphasized that today Russia’s geomorphology has entered a new stage of development corresponding to current world trends: the study of inaccessible terrain (submarine, subglacial, extraterrestrial), digital modeling based on GIS technologies, and inte gration with other disciplines of the geological and geographical series.

A rating assessment of the quality of life of the Russian regions, one of the most important social priorities, has been carried out. Experience of determining the quality of life indices in Russia and abroad is taken into account. The ratings of individual indicators for the constituent entities of the Russian Federation are calculated in three groups: socio-economic development, environmental status, and public health. Positions in the rating in each group were determined by combining the rating points of the three most significant indicators; after that, the integral rating was calculated in the same way. To identify trends, indicators for 2005 and 2015 were selected. A stable position both in 2005 and in 2015 in the top ten is occupied by Moscow and St. Petersburg, and by Tyumen (without AO), Kursk, Belgorod and Tambov oblasts, and the outsiders include Irkutsk, Amur and Arkhangelsk (without AO) oblasts, and by the Republic of Khakassia and Karelia. While in the leading regions, the main prob lems are associated with the ecological state of the environment, in the outsider regions they are caused by a combination of socio-economic, environmental, medical and demographic problems. The ratings of the constituent entities of the Baikal region are examined in detail. It was found that the common features of Zabaikalskii krai and the Republic of Buryatia are a low level of economic development, and a high level of poverty and mortality of the population. Irkutsk oblast, being a more eco nomically developed region, is distinguished by an increase in poverty, a low standard of health, and by higher mortality rates as compared with the average Russian values, as well as with Zabaikalskii krai and the Republic of Buryatia. Irkutsk oblast occupies the last positions in the ecological ranking. Rating monitoring should be continued as it is required in order to reduce the spatial asymmetry of the country and the imbalances in its socio-economic development.

An assessment is made of the main characteristic features in the territorial economic-settlement structure of Siberia: latitu dinal zonality, meridional west-east asymmetry, attraction to the main transport routes, localization of the industrial potential within territorial-production complexes, concentration of the population in major cities and in their immediate surroundings, and the different of “Russian” and “non-Russian” (ethnic) regions. Major trends in changes are identified, which have occurred dur ing the post-Soviet stage in the structures of the macro-region’s industry. In the sectoral structure, tendencies for the reorientation to the external market have been identified, with an increase of the proportion of exported products; for an increase in the propor tion of extractive sectors, and an enhancement in the resource-raw materials specialization, and for a faster (than in the country as a whole) recovery of production after its decline during the 1990s. The main result of the transformation of the institutional structure of the industry has been the redistribution of property of Siberia’s major enterprises among private All-Russian companies and State corporations of the country, which was accompanied by a reduction in budgetary-financial benefits for industrial regions. The main trends in change in the territorial structure of industrial production involve its abrupt shift toward the peripheral north ern regions with the expansion of the sphere of influence of the existing territorial-production complexes and with the emergence of new ones. Two trends in the transformation of the settlement structure of Siberia are pointed out: an enhancement in the inter-municipal center-periphery polarization with a growth of regional centers and their immediate surroundings, accompanied by a loss of the population in extensive peripheral regions, and a considerable increase in the proportion of titular peoples in the total population of some of the republics of Siberia, with a respective reduction in the proportion of non-titular peoples.

A case study of Western Siberia has shown that the anomalies observed in the natural environment of the Sub-Arctic are the consequences of the unfolding process of the movement of the planet’s core in the northward direction which is accompanied by enhanced degassing of the subsoil. It is demonstrated that the flow of heat into the lower atmosphere during the oxidation of increasing volumes of hydrogen has led to an increase in air temperature over the last several decades, and the largest anoma lies are observed in September-December. This is the effect of an enhancement in degassing as the Earth approaches the peri helion point, when the core continues to move by inertia and its pressure on the outer shells increases. An analysis is made of dendrochronological data indicating a negative impact on the growth of trees by a shortage of available soil moisture with an enhanced transpiration in conditions of high summer temperatures and degradation of permafrost. The study revealed a northward expansion of the habitats of many plant and animal species and a contradictory behavior of forest at the boundary with the tundra. It is established that two options should be considered in the analysis of the possible ways of a further development of events. One variant implies a continuation of directional changes in the endogenous origin in northern geosystems. The other variant is characterized by forced oscillations associated with long-term cycles of the solar system, the latest temporal time limit of which dates back to 1990. We compiled a general scheme of the chain reaction “movement of the Earth’s core - degas sing of the subsoil - hydrogen oxidation - warming of the soil and the ground air layer - plant growth” chain reaction; how ever, a large number of uncertainties remain as to the mechanisms of momentum transfer in each link.

In June and July 2019, on the left tributaries of the Angara river there occurred catastrophic rainfall floods inflicting enormous damage and human victims. The greatest damage was experienced by the city of Tulun on the Iya river. A compre hensive characteristic is given to the 2019 floods in comparison with similar events of the historical past and from the period of instrumental observations. An analysis is made of the characteristics of the flood hazard at gauging stations: their frequency and impact. The homogeneity of the series of the peak flood runoff is estimated against the background of climate change. The objects for study were the basins of the left tributaries of Angara river: the Irkut, Kitoi, Belaya, Oka, Uda and Biryusa, with a more detailed characteristic for the Iya river basin. The floods of 2019 were formed by extreme precipitation on the previously moist ened surface of the catchments. In 2019, an exceptional hydrological situation developed in terms of both flood hazard charac teristics and the devastating consequences for the city of Tulun. Nevertheless, catastrophic floods of a similar magnitude also reoccurred in the historical past and during the period of instrumental observations. The situation with two extreme floods dur ing the summer season is also not unique. The event under study cannot yet be associated with climate change. Changes in the peak rainfall runoff series are mostly insignificant, even when the approximate runoff maxima of 2019 are taken into account. The decreased flood frequency over a later period may be associated with a low-water period that ended in 2019. Therefore, similar events can be expected to recur on the rivers of Irkutsk oblast, both within the Angara basin and within the Lena and South Baikal basins

Presented are the results from investigating the synoptic processes observed during the floods in the south of Irkutsk region (June 20-30 and July 25-30, 2019). A comprehensive synoptic analysis was conducted to identify the main causes of extreme high precipitation amounts in the area of Tulun and Nizhneudinsk in summer 2019. During June 25-29, the southern areas of Irkutsk region showed heavy and very heavy precipitation, with its amounts within 31-81 mm in 12 h, as well as long-lasting heavy precipitation (136 mm in 36 h). The maximum rainfall was observed in the territories of Nizhneudinskii (106-140 mm) and Tulunskii (85-218 mm) districts, which amounted to 1.5 and 4 normal monthly values, respectively. It was established that the main factors determining intensity of the catastrophic floods were: 1) a powerful truncated cyclone; 2) a blocking trun cated meridional ridge over Eastern Siberia; 3) a slow-moving cold atmospheric front, 4) advection of contrasting air masses to the study area (warm subtropical and cold and humid masses from the south of Western Siberia, and easterly masses ones from the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk). The aforementioned directions of the transport of air masses were determined by analyz ing the HYSPLIT 5-day backward trajectories. Foci of high content of potentially accumulated moisture and fields of upward vertical air movements were identified over the study area. An intensification of the frontogenesis and an enhancement of pre cipitation could be caused by local orographic features contributing to the formation of orographic upward vertical flows, gave rise to a forced convection in the foothill areas. It is concluded that the two flood events were forced by precipitation of fron tal origin.

The paper discusses the results of investigation of the factors that led to the formation of a catastrophic flood in June 2019 on the Iya river in Tulun town, Irkutsk oblast, as well as a calculation and assessment of the characteristics of these floods. Ananalysis of the meteorological environments of flood formation is performed by using the ICON global weather forecast model. The trends in hydrometeorological characteristics for the period 1966-2019 are analyzed. The study revealed an increase in the precipitation amount in June by 36-61 % (31-46 mm), and negative trends in the maximum water discharges making up 24-37 % from May to September. Using the data on the water level and historical Q(H) curves, the maximum daily water discharge on June 29, 2019 was estimated at 6800 ± 700 m3/s. A schematization of the Iya river basin is carried out, the pa-rameters are systematized and the distributed hydrological model Hydrograph is verified. For three sub-basins within the Iya river basin, the median value of the Nash-Sutcliff criterion was 0.69 for the period 1970-1996. The flood characteristics are simulated and assessed using two sources of meteorological data. According to the data from weather stations, the maximum daily discharge was 6570 m3/s. This value falls within the range of estimates of observed values but its formation is delayed by 1 day. According to the simulation based on the ICON model data, the maximum 3-hour discharge reached 5260 m3/s, or at least 840 m3/s lower than the observed value; however, the simulated flood hydrograph coincides with observed one for the time intervals. The results of the study confirm a possibility for a short-term flood forecast using the method of deterministic hydro-logical modelling

The synoptic situation that developed in the summer of 2019 in the southwestern areas of Irkutsk oblast region, in the mountains and foothills of Eastern Sayan, was responsible for heavy rainfall that caused extreme flooding on the Iya river. A landscape-hydrological analysis of the territory was made. It was found that topography, morphology and structure of soil and vegetation cover have a considerable influence on the hydrological regime of the river and on the formation of the flood runoff. An important role for the operation of the hydrological functions of landscapes in the formation of this flood is played by the intensity, duration and spatial differentiation of precipitation, coupled with the state of the underlying surface within the Iya basin. During the period of extremely high precipitation, the landscapes of most of the catchment were characterized by a sig nificant humidification moisture resulting from preceding precipitation, which reduced their regulation and accumulation capac ity. Goletz, subgoletz and mountain-taiga larch landscapes on frozen tundra soils of the northeastern macroslope of Eastern Sayan which are characterized by large slope angles, sparse vegetation and a shallow soil layer, are distinguished by large water yield in conditions of heavy precipitation. A significant flow-regulation potential of mountain-taiga dark coniferous land scapes of gentle slopes and low mountains, and also the accumulating properties of meadow-marsh complexes of foothill depres sions and valleys were realized during the previous precipitation events and did not have a significant regulatory effect during the formation of the flood at the end of June. Hilly-ouval topography and a high groundwater level in the middle part of the basin are the factors promoting flooding thus impeding infiltration and outflow of water.

Based on operational data from the Irkutsk Hydrometeorological Service, the main characteristics of catastrophic flood that occurred in the period from June 24 to July 13, 2019 on the rivers of the Iya drainage basin are presented. It is shown that the flood on the Iya river and on its tributaries was the highest both in the runoff volume and in the maximum water discharge for the entire observation period. Contribution from the various parts of the Iya catchment to the total flood runoff is considered. An increased variance in fluctuations of the maximum water discharges since 1980 and increased repeatability of very large values of discharges over the last several decades were determined. This is a reason for the heterogeneity of the maximum water dis charges for a long observation period. Standard distribution curves did not allow to adequately describing the empirical points on the probability curve. Only based on combined use of composite homo generous distributions and consideration of the out standing rare maximum it became possible to obtain a satisfactory compliance between empirical and analytical distributions of maximum water flow rates and determine calculated parameters of the maximum discharges the Iya river near the city Tulun. Estimation of the calculated maximum water disharge and depths of flood runoff of different probability in the post the Iya river - Tulun city are presented.

Presented are the results from studying the current state, modeling and forecasting of the transboundary transport of pollutants with the flow of the rivers within the Selenga river basin. The method for calculating the pollution coefficient was used to assess the degree of pollution of the Selenga river basin on the territories of Mongolia and the Republic of Buryatia (RF) on the linear sections of the river and its tributaries within the boundaries of the adjacent river sections according to data of state monitoring observation in both countries. Results from assessing the impact of economic entities located within the transboundary Selenga river basin on the streams according to the α -indicator of the pollution coefficient and subsequent ranking by four levels of pollution indicate that the catchment and Lake Baikal itself continue to be polluted by insufficiently treated wastewater from industrial enterprises and housing and communal services. Calculations showed that the aquatic ecosystems of the Kyakhtinka (Khiagt) river, the Modonkul river and the Selenga river in the border zone along the border of Russia and Mongolia in the area of Naushki - Sükhbaatar and Kyakhta - Altan-Bulak, and in the area of the settlement of Novoselenginsk are most disturbed. On the territory of the Russian part of the basin, the Selenga river downstream, the degree of water pollution is increasing in the areas of industrial centers, such as Gusinoozersk and Ulan-Ude. The average indicator of the pollution coefficient as calculate for the Russian part of the Selenga river basin was higher than that for the Mongolian part, which suggests the conclusion that the degree of pollution by the pollutants under consideration is higher on the Mongolian territory than on the Russian territory.

The study area is located on the watershed of the surface runoff into Lake Baikal and the Vitim river. It has been shown that in the settings of goletz tundra landscapes a considerable proportion of atmospheric precipitation (700-800 mm/year) flows down the surface (more than 70 %). Fault tectonics and mountain-valley glaciation have had a dramatic effect on the formation of the river network whose degree of channelization is 0.8 km/km ² . The area has several lakes of glacial origin which contain considerable reserves of clean water. The valleys of all large rivers are located on faults which are well distinguishable in the relief and have been active to date. The Kholodnaya river whose channel runs on a deep fault serves as the regional natural drainage system. The runoff of surface and subsurface water from this territory enters largely the river. The low-mineralized water of hydrocarbonate calcium composition is due to an intense water exchange. We can notice the high level of lake and river water mineralization. The places where carbonate rocks are located show a local increase in mineralization of river and lake water which can reach 100 mg/L. The Kholodnaya polymetallic deposit influences the formation of the trace element composition of the Aelita, Avkitskoe, Meteoritnoe lakes. Increased zinc content is observed in the Kholodnaya, Tyya and Gasan-Dyakit rivers. A case study of Lake Aelita showed that trace elements enter the surface water due to drainage of fissure-vein water.

Data of a comprehensive investigation (2014-2018) within the Rel’ river basin (northwestern coast of Lake Baikal) are presented. Pollution and transformation of the main components of landscapes in the study area were identified, which are caused by natural and anthropogenic factors. It is established that pollution of the surface and snow waters of the Rel’ is due to high concentrations of phosphates and ammonium. The soils of taiga landscapes have a low resistant to anthropogenic impact, whereas the soils of steppificated landscapes have a higher degree of resistance to environmental changes. In transitional natural zones, sometimes the soils show the imprints of the precious ecological conditions for their formation, and often they do not correspond to modern vegetation. Reforestation of the extrazonal steppe as observed over the last several decades indicates change in natural and climatic conditions in the region. It should be noted that the climate dynamics, largely regarding the seasonal redistribution of precipitation, promotes the development of polydominant taiga replacing the extrazonal steppes, probably with conservation of xerophytic-petrophytic vegetation groups on southwestern steep eroded slopes and along stony ridges. Reforestation of territories occupied by extrazonal steppe should be treated as the manifestation of environmental conditions: topography and temperature and humidity dynamics in growing periods and years. Topography and climate are the main factors determining the spatial-dynamic organization and transformation of vegetation and soil cover across the study territory and in the region as a whole.

On the basis of comprehensive geological-geomorphological investigations, we reconstructed the parameters of Verkhnean garskii Glacier and paleogeographical settings in the Verkhneangarskaya rift zone at the epoch of Pleistocene glaciations of the Stanovoi Range. Using thermoluminescence datings of deposits on the location of fossil bones of large mammals of the mammoth faunal complex (early type) in the mouth of the Tyya river (North Baikal hollow), the lateral moraine of Tyya Glacier and lacustrine-fluvial sediments of a high terrace level, we determined their Mid-Pleistocene age. Tyya Glacier of maximal Mid-Pleistocene glaciation reached the Baikal coast, the water level of which was 80-90 m higher than at present. The identified rise of the water level in Baikal in the Mid-Pleistocene led to the ingression of its waters into the Upper Angara rift valley. It was found that Churovskii and Verkhneangarskii Glaciers reached the bottom of the basin and discharged in the lake. The available data indicate a small thickness (200-250 m) of Verkhneangarskii Glacier; nevertheless, the basin developed a thick foot glacier that formed in the basin, the outer edge of which advanced as far as upper reaches of the Gonkuli river. The glacier of the second Mid-Pleistocene ice age reached the Yanchukan river basin where a terminal-moraine line up to 5-6 km wide persisted. In the Mid-Pleistocene, the fifth and sixth terraces above floodplain formed in the Upper Angara basin, the formation time of which is confirmed by data of palynological analysis, and remains of fossil spongiofauna discovered in them indicate lacustrine conditions of sedimentation.

Presented are the results of observations of instantaneous exogenous transformations, i.e. funnel-shaped depressions in ter restrial surface occurring in areas of occurrence of readily soluble deposits. The surface and underground karst forms at the border of the East-European Platform and the Pre-Ural Trough as well as along the slopes of the northern end of the Ufa Plateau within Perm krai are objects of monitoring observations conducted by the Kungur inpatient laboratory since 1952. Mor phometric indicators of karst dips and sinkholes are presented. The special features in their distribution are considered depend ing on topographic elements. Areal and temporal quantitative indicators of the formation of collapse phenomena are presented by using the Lower Sylva karst region as an example. The role of fossil reef structures in the initiation of karstic processes in the carbonate-sulfate strata of the Kungur stage of the Permian system in the lower reaches of the Sylva river (tributary of the Chusovaya river) is determined. It was found that the concentration of the movement of groundwater of local aquifers in the draping structures not only from above but also from below and from the side with respect to the sulfate layer accelerates the dissolution processes of sulfate rocks located at a small distance along the contour of the fossil reef. An increase in the role of anthropogenic impact in the development of hazardous geological processes: karst and karst-suffusion dips, in urbanized areas is observed. The formation of recurring collapses on the initial site even in the case of measures taken to eliminate them is re corded. The special features of the development of multiple dips above the grottoes of Zuyatskaya cave are considered.

Presented are the results from investigating the aeolian sand massifs in the Belaya river valley. The Belaya, Kholmushino and Usolye massifs with the area of 2, 1,4 and 269 km, respectively, are singled out. They are differentiated by the degree and magnitude of manifestation of aeolian processes, and by the morphology of landforms. The Belaya massif is characterized by narrow gully-low ridge topography. The initial fluvial relief is moderately modified because of the isolated location of the area in the spur of the incised meander and its boundedness by the slope of the narrow segment of the valley. In the Kholmushino massif located in the zone of contact of the segment of the incised channel and the broadening of the valley, aeolian forms were able to evolve fully but they occur only along narrow terraced surfaces of the rectilinear segment of the valley. The more favor able conditions emerged for the evolution of the Usolye massif. The broad-floodplain type of Belaya channel promoted accumu lation of significant volumes of sandy material and its free transport in the process of aeolian morphogenesis. The most intense aeolian accumulation was observed in the lower reaches of the Belaya at the interface of the Late Glacial and Holocene (from 13,1 kyr BP) and was proceeding throughout the Early Holocene until 8,9 kyr BP when there occurred a decrease in activity of the aeolian processes and an intense soil formation began. The landscape-climatic conditions of the Atlantic period were favor able for the attenuation of aeolian activity and for a gradual fixation of sands by vegetation. The intensification phases of the aeolian processes were replaced by stages of a decrease in activity of the aeolian morphogenesis and soil formation in the inter vals 9,3-8,6; 6,7-6; 3,5-2,6 and 1,2-0,9 kyr BP. The pedogenesis stages coincided with an increase in heat and moisture availability. Analysis of the findings suggests the rhythmic behavior in the evolution of the region’s natural environment in the Late Glacial with the manifestation of aeolian phases every 4-5 ka and phases of intense soil formation every 1,9-2,5 ka.

According to data of dendrochronological investigations of larch trees that had grown on the Patoma crater (Irkutsk oblast, Bodaibinskii district) and near its base, the initial period of the formation of the crater can be dated back to the late 15 ^th - early 16 ^th centuries. In 1841-1842, the trees under investigation recorded in annual rings a catastrophic event which caused a disturbance to their root systems, damage to tree stems, and the formation of compression wood. It is obvious that the event is associated with the time of formation of a late circular wall on which sparse larch trees are 93-101 years of age, and on the middle mound emerging upon completion of the formation of the Patoma crater the age of the oldest tree is 71 years. Thus den drochronological investigations confirm a long-lasting and multievent formation of the Patoma crater. In some periods, the de position cone was evolving with a different intensity, sometime showing an explosive character. X-ray fluorescent analysis revealed a double Sr enrichment of larch wood at the time of significant activity of crater formation (1852-1859) when plutonic fluids from the igneous source were able to enter the upper horizons of the Earth’s crust at the time of magma intrusion into water-containing rocks. The fluids were enriched with CO2 and transported significant amounts of Sr, as a result of which the ⁸⁷ Sr/ ⁸⁶ Sr ratios in carbonate and terrigenous rocks assumed higher values in sandstone and slatestone on the early circular wall of the Patoma crater. The findings, coupled with geological data, suggest that the Patoma crater emerged as a result of a phreatic explosion that occurred either at the time of magma intrusion into water-containing rocks or s a consequence of the fault and decompression of heater water-containing rocks.

The problem of estimating the probable maximum values of the inflow to the Zeya reservoir on the basis of determining maximum probable precipitation and results from simulating the flood runoff formation is considered. The maximum probable daily precipitation amounts were determined by the hydrometeorological method using the data of eight-term station-based me teorological observations of dew point temperature and precipitation amounts. Maximum daily precipitation values were con verted to those for the travel time of the flood wave via the channel system (seven days for the Zeya basin) using the transition coefficient obtained by a statistical processing of precipitation amounts of different durations. To calculate the possible maximum flood, a rain graph with 1-day sampling intervals was constructed according to the type of change in precipitation intensity dur ing the maximum flood observed in 2013. Precipitation was recalculated to the runoff in terms of the deterministic model devel oped by the Hydrologic Engineering Center (USA) with due regard for the formation characteristic of heavy floods in the settings of permafrost. The calculated limiting value of the inflow was refined using the Bayesian method of constructing a probability curve taking into account the upper limit of the distribution and the specified determination error of the desired characteristic. The values obtained for the maximum flow of the Zeya are compared with its estimates available to date.

We examine the conditions for transport accessibility of the key deposits of raw mineral resources of the Far East and the directions of its further development. The characteristics of the raw mineral base of the region are considered in terms of the reserves and volumes of extraction of separate kinds of mineral resources. The key problems of developing mineral resources at the present stage are discussed. We demonstrate the development prospects for the raw mineral sector on the basis of creating processing facilities and switching over from the extraction of raw materials to obtaining the product with a high degree of pro cessing and added value. A significant importance of the transport factor is emphasized for development of the deposits in the Far East which is most clearly pronounced in the northern regions. An unevenness of development of the region’s transport in frastructure, its poor quality (incompliance with the normative requirements of motor roads, and a limitation of railroad capac ity) are highlighted. An analysis is made of the limiting influence of the poor transport accessibility on the raw mineral complex. The characteristics of the formation of transport schemes are outlined according to the location and volumes of transported re sources. The study revealed a high demand of the enterprises of the extractive sector for the transport infrastructure which is not satisfied by the State. Examples of the development of the transport infrastructure elements by private companies on the terri tory of the Far East are investigated. The role of the Northern Sea Route as an important transport route in the medium- and long-term future is characterized. The efforts made to develop further this direction are pointed out: hydrographic investigations in the sea area, change in the institutional conditions of the functioning, and development of the icebreaker fleet of Russia. China’s interest in using the arctic sea routes for cargo transportation is shown. It is concluded that of strategic importance is an active exploitation of the Northern Sea Route by Russian companies for economic development of the deposits in the Sakha (Yakutia) Republic and Chukotka Autonomous Okrug.

This article deals with the geographical aspects of international trade and foreign investment at the turn of the 20 ^th century. These issues of historical geography of the world economy are poorly explored in national science. It is shown that the widely held views of the critical importance of the colonies in foreign economic relations of the parent states are unsubstantiated and are not statistically sound. Neither in trade nor in capital investment did the colonies play the role that is often attributed to them. It is established that it is Europe rather than the colonial empires became the main structural element of the world economic system resulting from the industrial and transport-communication revolution. The world economic ties of those times are, in essence, the interrelations between European countries or with the participation of European countries. It is found that the colonial empires were economically open systems rather than closed systems, as is sometimes suggested. The characteristics of the internal structure of the world economic relations are identified. It is shown that raw materials and food products were dominant in the commodity composition of international trade, whereas the structure of foreign investment was dominated by capital investment in the infrastructure. As far as foreign direct investments are concerned, however (which constituted a relatively small part of capital exports), they were made mainly in the primary sector of the economy. Furthermore, the counter flows of capital, that is, mutual investments of industrially developed countries, were uncommon. It is pointed out that the statement that capital was exported solely to poor and backward countries is misleading. On the contrary, as is established, most foreign investments were made in developed countries, according to the standards of those times.

Presented are the results from analyzing the dynamics of the ethnic mosaic index of the Russian regions between the population censuses of 1959 and 2010, with a division into two periods: the late Soviet period (until 1989) and the post-Soviet era. In the late Soviet period, the growth of polyethnicity embraced 55 % of the regions of the RSFSR. They were mostly Russian regions that experienced an influx of migrants mainly from Ukraine and Belarus as well as from other Union Republics and a number of national autonomies of Russia. Already then most of the autonomous republics showed a tendency for an increase in the share of the population of titular enthnicity. In the post-Soviet period, in spite of the ongoing decline in the Russian population in Russia, most regions of the country (71 %) experienced a decree of the degree of homogeneity of the ethnic composition of the population. This category included many “Russian” regions where a markedly educed share of the Russian and Belarusian population was never compensated for by the influx of migrants from North Caucasus and the Baltics and the CIS. From the previously extensive territorial massif with increasing polyethnicity in the center of the European part of the country there were only a few regions left in the post-Soviet period, which formed a ring around Moscow. In this situation, Moscow itself began to play the assimilation function with respect to foreign-language-speaking migrants of the Soviet and post-Soviet periods. Most of the national republics showed a steady increase in the share of titular ethnic groups, including because of the indrawal of a given ethnic group to within the boundaries of the autonomy accompanied by an outflow of Russians. Only in a few republics (Karelia, Komi, Udmurtia and Khakassia) and a number of autonomous okrugs did the proportion of the Russian population increase.

The geoontology principles of identifying the functional connectivity of all components of the socio-biological system have been used as the basis for developing a unified and scientifically rigorous methodology of preprocessing of epidemiological infor mation and its preparation for further use. The specific features of epidemiological information are highlighted as well as the need for territorial linkage of the objects and situations under study in order to ensure the adequacy of management decisions. Ac cording to the principles of designing relational databases, an integrated epidemiological database has been generated, which includes the geographical coordinates of the objects and situations under study. Such a territorial linkage when implemented using GIS technologies provides a means of solving regional problems of estimating the probability of disease with due regard for the specific features of the location, which ensures competent and targeted work of the system of medical and environmental monitoring. The continually updated databases have been created and patented, which are compatible with ArcGIS and contain basic epidemiological data on the incidence of tick-borne encephalitis and tick-borne borreliosis, based on information received from hospitals in Irkutsk. For updating the integrated database with information on the occurrence of infections across landscapes, annual (since 2005) expeditions have been conducted in several key areas of Irkutsk oblast which are distinguished by landscape diversity, vector size, attendance and morbidity of the population. Ticks and their hosts are collected and analyzed for the pres ence of pathogens of natural focal infections. More than 25 thousand ticks were caught, whose infection with tick-borne en cephalitis virus averaged 1.5 %. Visualization of epidemiological information used the methods of end-to-end geographical mapping of the territory, the logic of which formulates the principles of geoinformation mapping and naturally includes a natural territorial component.

We examine the different approaches in assessing the water quality of water bodies located within the territories with a significant human-induced impact. The hydrological region of Norilsk was used as a test object. The data used in the analysis characterize the period between 2001 and 2003; however, they are still relevant because of a high level of human-induced impact on water bodies. For the purposes of parameterization, the water quality indices which are being most abundantly used in Russia and abroad were evaluated. Results from parameterizing the water quality, obtained by various methods and combined into an overall scheme, were used to generate the rating scale for assessing the hydro-ecological status of aquatic ecosystems. These calculations show that the method of Specific Combinatorial Water Pollution Index (SCWPI) established by the departmental standard of the Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring of Russia (Rosgidromet) provides the most objective water quality assessment for water bodies experiencing a significant human-induced impact. Similar results also apply for water quality parameterization using the Canadian CCME WQI method, which is confirmed by the closeness of correlation between the values of these indices. According to the SCWPI method, in none of the streams was the hydro-ecological status assessed as “normal”. In the sources of four rivers, it was found to be close to class 1, and their hydro-ecological status was assessed as “risk”. The water in 11 measuring sections corresponds to quality class 3, or a “critical” status of the aquatic eco system. In 12 measuring sections corresponding mainly to the estuarine segments of the rivers and some brooks, the hydro-eco logical status of the water bodies is characterized as “disaster”, i.e. the water pertains to quality class 4 and 5. Furthermore, in none of the water bodies under study is the environmental “catastrophe” not recorded.

This paper presents new results of paleolandscape studies in the southeastern part of Meshchera Lowlands. The reconstruc tions of pre-agrarian landscapes in the key area located in Klepikovskii district of Ryazan oblast were made using data of pollen analysis and radiocarbon dating of peat deposits and results of morphological analysis of the soil profile in the key area, based on detailed maps of the contemporary landscape structure of the study area. The findings showed that prior to economic develop ment of Southeastern Meshchera, broadleaved forests of oak, lime, elm and ash and spruce-broadleaved forests grew in the dominant geosystems of moraine-fluvioglacial plains under favorable edaphic conditions. It is found that the beginning of an thropogenic transformations of the natural environment in dates back to about 1400 cal BP. It is established that since that time, primary forests were intensely cut down and burned to be replaced by agricultural lands and secondary forests. Spore-pollen spectra showed a sharp decrease in the share pollen from broadleaved species, an increase in the proportion of pollen from pine and birch, tree species characteristic of secondary stands, an increase in the abundance of pollen from herbs, and the appearance of pollen from cultivated cereals, weeds and species of disturbed habitats. Soil profiles showed old arable horizons and prolific evidence of fires. On the basis of data obtained, it is established that modern forest communities are the result of a long-lasting transformation of vegetation under the effect of the anthropogenic factor. The study revealed intense disturbances in vegetation cover over the course of the last 300 years caused by deforestation.

This article outlines an original approach to analyzing the development of the system of spatial nature conservation, and the system itself is shown as a distinctive phenomenon of natural, socio-cultural and economic genesis. Emphasis is placed on institutional, structural and material changes within systems characterized by a set of factors, actors, trajectories and vectors. The factors include the conditions that ensure the availability of resources for the emergence and existence of protected ecosystems. They also determine the current state and trends of the nature protection system determining the current status and tendencies for change of the nature conservation system. Especially protected natural areas, their networks and environmental legislations were used as active agents of the transformations. It is suggested that the elementary changes should be described by means of trajectories which are generalized into transformation vectors, which indicate the possible changes in nature conservation systems. Application of these authors’ hypothesis is illustrated by the example of 540 nature conservation sites, nature conservation systems and legislation of nine regions of Western Siberia. The analysis revealed signs of a crisis situation in the national system of nature conservation. It is established that the regional systems constitute a key element in the structure of the country’s environ mental organization, and the direction and synchronicity of the development vectors within and between them determine the prospects for higher-rank environmental networks. It is concluded that there is a need for the synchronization of regional legisla tive processes in line with the traditional national foundations of reserve management and studies.

An analysis is made of the geoecological state of Abies holophylla plantations on Russkii Island. The restoration process of coniferous-broadleaved geosystems is characterized by using, as an example, the model area of Abies holophylla plantations in the southeastern part of the Sapernyi Peninsula. On the basis of a set of field, geobotanical, soil, dendrochronological, lichenological and landscape investigations, it was established that a favorable geoecological situation is evolving in the study area. It is determined that the values of hazardous chemical elements in the soil and in the tree needles are much lower than the maximum allowable concentrations, and the fir forest over the course of its existence has not experienced negative impacts which could adversely affect its status and the forest restoration process. Dendrochronological analysis showed that the curve of radial growth corresponds to a normal growth process of successfully developing trees over 30 years. The lichen species diversity within the Abies holophylla plantation and its surroundings is higher than average for the island; rare species also occur. In spite of the optimal conditions for the growth and a favorable environmental situation, negative anthropogenic impacts were recorded. Evidence for illegal felling of Abies holophylla was observed in December. Palynological analysis of soft sediments showed that coniferous species, including Abies holophylla, formed part of forest vegetation of Russkii Island, starting, at least, in the latter half of the Mid-Subboreal. It is established that coniferous-broadleaved forests were of the most widespread occurrence during a global cooling period at the interface of the Late and Mid-Holocene.

With a view to conducting a comprehensive assessment of pollution of the water bodies within the Lake Baikal drainage basin using dimensionless indicators of the water chemical composition, the problems of identifying and testing the indicators were dealt with, which are necessary for determining the sources and levels of pollution and assessing the contributions of the tributar ies to lake pollution and the self-cleaning ability of the waters. The methodology of geoecological monitoring as suggested by these authors is based on identifying correlations between polluters and environmental sites by examining technogenic material of from the sites as mixtures, and material from the sources as their components. Identification of the spatio-temporal structure of pol lution involves analyzing the landscape organization of the lake drainage basin and the distribution patterns of pollutants. Sub stantiation of the observation and monitoring network, extrapolation of monitoring results and display of real-time data used landscape mapping methods. An analysis was made of the landscape and geochemical differentiation of the Lake Baikal drain age basin, and the unified indicators of water composition relating water pollution to natural conditions were ranked. The study revealed areas of geosystems with different rates of organic matter decomposition, i.e. the water areas of the lake with a different self-cleaning ability of the waters, and the areas of the drainage basin, the soils of which are responsible for the formation of waters of different types. The resulting contours were generalized in accordance with the scale of the map for the spatial differ entiation of biogeochemical parameters of the landscape organization of the drainage basin. The highest decomposition rate of organic matter is characteristic for taiga dark-coniferous geosystems of optimal development, submontane and intermontane depressions and valleys of Khamar-Daban Range, and the lowest rate is typical for goletz and subgoletz geosystems as well as for taiga forests along the western coast of Lake Baikal.

Presented are the results from investigating carbon balance in forests of the transboundary Selenga river basin, based on inventory data for the status of forest fund and the key factors (tree felling and forest fires) influencing carbon absorption and emission in forests. Analysis of the forest fund in the Buryat and Mongolian parts of the Selenga river basin revealed distinctive features in the age structure of forests (middle-aged and young tree stands are dominant in Buryatia, and mature and overmature stands in Mongolia), and in the structure of lands of forest fund (an increase in forest-covered area is observed in Buryatia, whereas Mongolia shows the reverse trend). It is established that these differences are influenced by the nature of forest use and by the organization of the forest protection against fires in neighboring countries. The ROBUL technique was used to obtain estimates of carbon budget. A comparative analysis of carbon balance showed that the potential of forests of Buryatia in carbon absorption (sequestration) is by a factor of 3 larger than forests of Mongolia. It is concluded that the amount and sign of carbon budget of forests growing in neighboring territories are determined by the current age structure of forests and by the intensity of destructive disturbances (carbon losses as a result of tree felling, forest fires and death of tree stands), because the carbon absorption by forests is characterized by a relative stability. The contribution from various carbon pools of the forest ecosystem to the total carbon reserves and deposition (absorption) by forests is shown. Results obtained from assessing carbon budget can serve as a basis for developing the forest management and forest use strategy within the framework of transboundary cooperation of neighboring countries in order to minimize the negative effects of climate change and make effective use of its potential benefits.

We examine the regional conditions for swamp formation in different geomorphological settings and characteristics of their emergence, water feed and functioning in the middle mountain zone of Dagestan. Comprehensive investigations used, as the basis, the largest area of swamps located at the transition from the slope of the Arzhuta ridge to the Khunzakh plateau at altitudes of about 1860 m. We investigated the 1.5 m profile of the Shotota lowland swamp, estimated its age using 14 radiocarbon datings and developed the age-depth model. It is established that the grass marsh was continuously evolving in geomorphologically stable conditions for more than 7400 years. It is pointed out that according to the accumulation rate in the peat layer of the profile (averaging 1 cm per 62 years), the Shotota peat deposits may well become the first high resolution long-period natural archives of the northeastern part of Caucasus. It is determined that the development of this peat deposit and underlying sediments encompasses most of the Holocene, including periods of intense agricultural land use of the mountain zone of Dagestan starting in the Neolithic. Data obtained for changes in the peat composition, accumulation rate, degree of decomposition and ash content revealed large phases of change in the region’s moisture content. It is emphasized that a further study of the paleoecological records in the Shotota profile will permit a detailed reconstruction of the Holocene landscape-climatic conditions to provide fundamentally new information on the evolution of nature and development of the territory of East Caucasus by humans.

Presented are the results from investigating spatio-temporal variability in surface air and soil temperatures at depth across the territory of Western Siberia at the end of the 20 ^th - beginning of the 21 ^st centuries. It is established that there were sea sonal differences in temporal changes of climatic parameters in the north and in the south of the region: in the early 21 ^st cen tury, the highest rates of warming were observed in spring throughout the region, whereas the trends were oppositely directed during the winters season in the north and in the south. A comparison is made of the estimates obtained with instrumental ob servations. It was determined that, in spite of the identified differences in the seasonal behavior of the values of soil temperature trends at different depths, it is more appropriate to use reanalysis data in describing regional climate variability. The identified trends in soil temperature fluctuations at different depths are generally similar to air temperature changes. Examination of soil temperatures in the 28-100 and 100-255 cm layers from the reanalysis dataset showed that, in contrast to the situation for 1979-1998, the time interval 1999-2015 showed a decrease of this value in autumn and winter and its significant decrease during the spring-summer period, with the highest rate in spring in the arctic zone of the territory. It was found that the chang es observed according to reanalysis data indicate a rise of temperature in upper soil layers, which, in turn, can lead to an increase in the depth of the layer of seasonal thawing.