Home – Home – Jornals – Geography and natural resources 2018 number 2

The ecological functions and features of the geologic environment are investigated in terms of environmental geology. The current status of the geologic medium is characterized as a crisis, and the issues of its protection and rehabilitation are not ap propriately addressed in environmental protection activity of the state and businesses. The most critical ecological-geologic risks include destruction and deformation of geologic strata, huge amounts of industrial waste, oil spills, landscape and soil degrada tion, air and surface water pollution, seismic and mudflow phenomena, etc. Mining operations have the greatest negative influ ence on the environmental parameters of the geologic medium. Inadequate attention to issues related to the present state and protection of the geologic medium leads to accidents and crises in industrial installations. Ecological-geologic hazard hotspots have emerged in areas of intense extraction and processing of mineral raw materials. On the other hand, the environmental component of active mineral resource use is neglected when formulating the prospects for a further development of resource regions. The country’s major mining companies, active participants of the world market of mineral resources, are the most proficient in sustainable mineral resource use. In recent years, Russia saw a large-scale improvement of environmental legislation. Many legal innovations focusing on the preservation of the geologic medium are scattered among different laws. The legal and financial preconditions for the ecologization of mineral resource use are examined. The state plays a key role to stimulate the sustainable mining, processing and transportation of useful minerals. It has to change significantly the system to support the geologic medium protection.

This paper presents the results of a comparative spatial analysis of the regions of the Russian Federation in the context of the concept of a green economy with the use of two quantitative factors that characterize the well-being of the population: the payroll fund and the total wage fund and own revenues of the regional budgets per capita. The key environmental and eco nomic indicators used in this study are the indicators of eco-intensity for regional economic systems. They show the particular negative impact on the environment “produced” by the regional economy per unit of economic result. The following character istics of the region’s socio-ecological system are considered: the volume of atmospheric pollutant emissions in terms of 1000 rubles of the regional payroll fund and in terms of 1000 rubles of own income to regional budgets. The study revealed a high degree of heterogeneity of Russia’s regions in socio-environmental characteristics. It is shown that not only does the population of many natural resource and industrial regions live in conditions of increased anthropogenic pressure (both total and specific), but it also is not provided with additional resources of “collective well-being” through its own budget income, in spite of the unfavorable ecological and natural conditions. It is concluded that carbon regulation aimed at developing a low-carbon economy should not focus on identical quantitative indicators for the whole country.

This paper considers the results of geomorphological field experiments in Siberia conducted at the permanent stations oper ated by the V. B. Sochava Institute of Geography SB RAS for a 60-year period and describes the observation methods. A unique database of quantitative data on the modern relief dynamics is provided. The rates of slow mass motions of soils on slopes, and also of the deluvial, aeolian and channel processes are presented. Observations for long-term time series are summarized. Much attention is paid to the results from investigating the slope processes. The contribution of stationary investigations to the solution of fundamental problems in geomorphology is shown. The role of field experiments in understanding the temporal organization of geomorphological systems is emphasized. Dynamic phases of the intrasecular cycles of exogenous relief formation are investi gated. Models of the contemporary functioning of denudation systems that cover all possible variety of dynamic phases and morphological and climatic conditions of denudation in semi-arid conditions of southern Siberia are obtained. We found that the spatial ordering of exogenous relief formation in the south of Siberia is manifested in the form of a regional series of cor relative denudational systems whose structure and functioning mode naturally vary along the aridity and continentality vectors of climate. The spatial ordering of aeolian lithostreams is shown, which are involved in a common cycle of matter spinning clockwise and moving aeolian fine material along the northern subarid foothills of the mountain belt of Southern Siberia. An important role of the observation results on the relief dynamics for solving ecological problems is pointed out. Prospects for a further development of experimental geomorphological research in Siberia using high-precision instruments, GIS technologies and other modern methods are outlined.

A study is made of the problem of inventory and development of the cadastre (register) of tourist attractions of a natural area in connection with the organization of tourist-recreational and educational activities in national parks. The content of the tourist attractions concept is considered. The rationale is set out for the most general categories (classes) in the classification of tourist attractions, such as natural-artificial, local-regional-global, exploited-potential, objects-events, and real-unreal. It is shown that the tourist attraction is not an object per se but an object in the structure of tourist-recreational, educational and other activities. It is found that objects and events become tourist attractions as a result of making them attractive in the eyes of the public. The diversity of tourist attractions of the Land of the Leopard National Park and surrounding territories and water areas was investigated. The following groups and sub-groups of tourist attractions were identified: landscapes or geocomplexes, the biota, medicinal springs and curative mud, places of human life and activity at present, places of life and activities of his torical persons, historical events of the 19 ^th -20 ^th centuries, places of life and traces of human activity in the Middle Ages, and places of life and traces of human activity of the ancient world. It is emphasized that one of the first stages of the organization of tourist-recreational and educational activities in the National Park involves developing the cadastre (register) of tourist at tractions which serves as the basis for working out, on the basis of which excursion routes and programs are developed. It is noted that paying due attention to local and regional tourist attractions is of great educational importance, as this restores to man the ability to see not only well-known (branded) objects but perceive the world around him in all its diversity.

A comprehensive characterization of the flood hazard on the rivers of the Baikal region is presented, which was obtained by investigating the streams within the basins of the Angara, Upper Lena (with the Vitim and Olekma), Lower Tunguska (head waters), Upper Amur and Lake Baikal (including the entire Selenga basin). The main flood indicators for the period 1985-2017 are estimated: the genesis, frequency, duration, flooding area and the force of impact. The influence of changes in the river runoff characteristics on the flood risk is shown by results of correlation analysis and analysis of integral difference curves. An assessment is made of the changes in the flood frequency at gauging stations during the period of pronounced climatic changes (from 1981 to 2014), compared with the earlier period. The flood hazard within the spatial context for municipalities in the rank of administrative districts is determined on the basis of the dual (socio-economic and natural) nature of floods. It has been confirmed that the most dangerous in the Baikal region are rainfall floods in the southern areas of Irkutsk oblast, the Republic of Buryatia and Zabaikalskii krai. They have the highest frequency, and the largest flooding areas and force of impact and are characterized by the greatest damage and by the largest number of victims and evacuated people. On the other hand, the fre quency of floods at gauging stations in recent years has decreased compared to the earlier period against the background of the observed low-water period, which is most pronounced on the rivers of South Baikal and in the Selenga river basin.

Results from investigating the geosystems of Cisbaikalia in its western and eastern parts (Primorskii Range and Barguzin Range, respectively) are presented. For studying three macroslopes of these mountain ranges (having an easterly aspect for the Primorskii Range and a westerly and south-easterly aspect for the Barguzin Range), the regional background and the main factors of the landscape differentiation of the study areas were analyzed. Structural features of topological geosystems are revealed, and large-scale maps of key areas are compiled (at a scale of 1:50 000). Maps of the landscape-typological structure were created on the basis of the structural-dynamic and facies analysis of landscapes. It is established that the main factors influencing the land scape diversity are the aspect and steepness of the slopes, the composition and structure of rocks, the absolute height, the amount of atmospheric precipitation, and anthropogenic impacts. It is determined that the influence of the lithomorphic factor is widespread throughout the study areas, the hydromorphic factor is also important, the cryomorphic factor occurs additionally in the goletz zone, and the xeromorphic factor is only observed on the Baikal Range and on the coastal plain in some areas of Priolkhonie. The dynamic aspect of the landscape structure and the relationships between geosystems are displayed in map legends.

Presented are the geological-geographical structural characteristics of the northeastern part of the Barguzin depression with a detailed description of the thermal springs (Kuchigerskii, Ukhmeiskii and Seyuiskii) and geological and hydrogeological condi tions of their discharge. Aerial photographs were used to identify a network of disjunctive dislocations represented by the general (Barguzinskii) fault and by the local (Ulyugninskii, Khakharkhai-Barguzinskii, Dzherginskii and Seyuiskii) faults. It is shown that the outcrops of thermal springs are connected with the intersection nodes of faults of several directions. New data on macro- and micro-component composition of the water, therapeutic mud and free gases are presented. It is determined that the content of La, Mn, Pb, Rb, Co, Cd, Ni, Zn, Cr and Sr in the water of the springs is above the concentrations of these chemical elements in Lake Baikal. High contents of Sr, Rb, Zr and Ba was observed in the mud composition of the Kuchigerskii and Umkheiskii thermal springs. It is established that the Kuchigerskii source is dominated by methane of organic origin and by nitrogen, while nitrogen is dominant in the Umkheiskii spring. The current status of the utilization of the thermal springs for medical and rec reational purposes is outlined. A high balneological potential of the thermal springs in the northern part of the Barguzin depres sion is shown.

It is shown that the normative characteristic of the recreation zone on the Baikal-Kotokel isthmus meets the requirements to such areas according to natural and anthropogenic conditions. We identified the criteria and pointed out the favorable factors for the selection of the area where to establish and develop the motor tourist campsite. It is established that in recent years the eastern coast of Middle Baikal has been experiencing anthropogenic impacts due to unorganized tourism as well as a steady growth of tourist arrivals from countries of Inner Asia. We suggest that a regional tourist and recreation cluster should be estab lished on the Baikal-Kotokel isthmus. A functional zoning of the Kotokelskii site measuring 4 km ² was carried out. Six zones are singled out, each of which is intended for the performance of particular functions related to rendering various services to tourists. Recommendations are made for an improvement in the ecological situation in the neighborhood of Lake Kotokel, requiring in vestment of money, hydrotechnical amelioration, and other measures. It is suggested that the motor tourist campsite should be combined with the roadside service so that the facility becomes a shelter for tourists and long-distance truck drivers, accommo dating as many as 1200 persons. We calculated the unit cost of the land area on the site (60 rubles per square meter), the starting price for the organization of the land auction.

A study is made of the coastal zones of the recreation areas of Eastern Cisbaikalia: the Lemasovo locality, the villages of Bol’shaya Rechka and Sukhaya. The findings permitted diagnostics of soils represented by four genetic types: Haplic Fluvisols, Histic Fluvisols, Eutric Fluvisols and Al-Fe-humus soils and their morphological structure is described. Presented are the results of a micromorphological analysis and from studying the main indicators of the physicochemical properties of soils experiencing recreational impacts which include acidity, exchange cations of calcium and magnesium, humus and particle-size distribution. It is established that changes in the particle-size distribution are manifested by the reorganization of content of fractions as a result of mechanical action: input, wash and mixing of material. It is determined that the number of fractions of fine and medium sand in alluvial soils increases, and the number of fractions of dust and silt decreases. Structural changes in Al-Fe-humus soils are revealed, which arise due to their sandy-loamy composition and an increased concentration of organic matter. The detected microforms of organic matter are characterized by inclusions of large partially decomposed and numerous carbonated plant residues. It is pointed out that the recreation-caused changes do not affect deep horizons. It is established that humus content, particle-size distribution, microstructure of the soil mass and organic material are most representative for the diagnosis of recreation-caused soil transformation, and the chemical indices are less informative. The identified feature of the soils studied signals their vulnerability associated with the formation of soils on sandy sediments, and with short-profile and low-power organogenic horizons.

A quantitative assessment is made of suspended sediment load, including particulate organic matter and organic carbon, in 2014 for the small streams of the Northern Yenisei region, in the taiga-tundra transition zone (near the city of Igarka, Krasnoyarsk krai). It was found that the suspended sediment concentration (SSC) of the streams under investigation fluctuated between 2 and 18 mg/L during the summer-autumn low-water period of 2014. The proportion of particulate organic matter (POM) in the total sediment yield varied from 16.4 to 74.1 %, depending on landscape-geomorphological conditions for suspended sediment formation: it is higher for streams with tundra catchments and lower on forest watersheds underlain by sandy and clayey loams. The POM content varies from catchment to catchment from 1.63 to 2.42 mg/L, and the mean concentration of particulate or ganic carbon (POC) is estimated at 0.73 to 1.09 mg C/L. It is shown that the local channel transformations serve as the main source of POM and POC input to the water of two out of three streams under study. Surface runoff or fast subsurface flow in the organic soil horizon is the external source of POM input to the water of the third stream during flooding. Regional empirical dependencies were obtained, which correlate the water discharge, total SSC and the proportion of POM are obtained. The long-term proportion of POM in the annual suspended sediment flow of the Graviyka river makes up 25 % and POC, 11 %, or, in absolute values, 406 and 183 t/year, and in units of layer 1.26 and 0.57 t/km ² , respectively.

Joint variability in annual precipitation amounts across the territory of Siberia and Kazakhstan was analyzed using multi factor stochastic modeling tools. It is shown that there are statistically significant correlations between these variables, which satisfy the temporal stability condition. Such correlations that reflect the regularities in the formation of the annual precipitation field have also both a positive and a negative character. Positive correlations are observed between closely located weather sta tions and reflect mainly the local homogeneity of the formation of the annual precipitation field. They are reliably identified by methods of both multi-factor and single-factor statistics. Negative correlations are observed between the significantly more remote weather stations. They are revealed according to the condition of the significance of the deviation from zero for the negative coefficients of the variables in multi-factor linear regression models. Paired negative, statistically significant correlations between annual precipitation amounts at weather stations occur extremely rarely. From an applied perspective, the presence of significant regular correlations between annual precipitation amounts can be used to construct models based on such regularities, for an approximate reconstruction of missing data in the past or in problems of a combined forecasting of the expected annual precipi tation for the territory under consideration in the future.

Argillites, clays and fine-grained sands with traces of connectivity and sandy alluvium from the Gorome cave (Oka plateau in Eastern Sayan) were studied. Results on the mineral composition of terrigenous components of light and heavy fractions of these sediments are considered for the first time. They were obtained by the method of quantitative immersion analysis. The morphological features of minerals indicated that there were no traces of roundness; a predominance of ore components is re sponsible for the increased mass of heavy fraction in clays and sands; the highest degree of chemical maturity was observed in argillites. The general and particular features of light and heavy minerals were established; the presence of a large number of aggregates and carbon-bearing inclusions with the structure of wood in the composition of light fraction as well as meteoritic particles among heavy components was observed. The method of phase X-ray diffraction analysis was used to determine the composition of clay minerals among which smectite of a weak degree of transformation prevailed. A high content of aggregates in cave argillites, clays and fine-grained sands was confirmed by results of studies using the “Microstructure” method. The as sumptions (hypotheses) concerning carbon-bearing inclusions, meteoritic particles and the formation of aggregates were considered. The woody microstructure in carbon-bearing inclusions can give evidence for fire sites in the cave, and the presence of meteor itic particles is likely due to redeposition of “above-ground” sedimentary rocks. Two variants of the formation of epigenetic ag gregates are suggested: in conditions of positive temperatures as a result of variable moisturizing or drying out of the precipitate; at negative temperatures, as a result of the microstructure rearrangement under the influence of physicochemical processes.

The spatial distribution patterns of climatic changes in Yakutia are considered. For 26 meteorological stations of Yakutia we calculated the linear trend coefficients of climatic characteristics: air temperature (mean annual, January and July tempera tures) and the mean annual amount of atmospheric precipitation from 1966 to 2016. Maps of climate change trends were com piled from linear trend coefficients. A spatial analysis of the zonal (regional) peculiarities of the climate of Yakutia has been carried out. An increase in air temperature was established for the 50-year period under consideration. It was found that the annual values of the air temperature trend are positive and, on average, a characteristic trend change interval is 0.3 to 0.6 °C/10 years. Most of the meteorological stations recorded trends of air temperature with maximum values in winter and minimum values in summer. It was determined that the values of the trends in annual precipitation show different directions, and positive trends occur on more than 70 % of the territory of Yakutia. Their maximum corresponds to the mountain-taiga regions of Southern Yakutia. Negative trends in precipitation with values of up to -15 mm/10 years are observed in tundra landscapes. The findings show that different regions of Yakutia respond differently to climate change. The trend of an increase in mean annual temperature is largely due to the rise in temperatures during the winter months. The rise in air temperature in Yakutia may be part of global warming. Over the last 50 years there has been an increase in the amount of precipitation in Yakutia as a whole.

This research focuses on polygenetic burozem formation conditions, physicochemical properties, mechanical and total chemical composition, and spore-pollen spectra of horizons. It was found that on the islands and the coast of southern Primorskii krai there occur burozems with a simple polygenetic profile on red and yellow residual soils which combines modern (pedoge netic) and relict (lithogenetic) signs of soil formation processes. It is shown that the polygeneticity of the profile implies a dra matic change in color of the soil mass in the lower part of the profile having an inherited coloring of relict parent rocks: bright brown and yellowish-brown hues in burozems occurring yellow residua and pinkish in burozems on red residua. A polygenetic ity of the profile of the burozems under consideration was identified from the degree of stoniness manifesting itself in increased content of detrital-stony material in the illuvial part of the profile and its absence in the lower part, which gives evidence of the intensity of deluvial processes at the time of formation of separate genetic horizons. It is shown that horizon C (parent rock) and adjacent transitional horizon ВМС differ from the overlying part of the profile by the highest silt and clay content. An increase in content of aluminum and iron oxides in the soil mass of the lower part of the profile was observed, which indicates its allitiza tion. We studied the intraprofile variation in spore-pollen spectra characterizing the succession of plants and the climatic condi tions during the formation of genetic horizons of polygenetic burozems thereby providing insight into the causes for the diversity in their morphological structure and the origin of the polygeneticity. Data of radiocarbon analysis were used to determine the formation time of genetic horizons of the burozems considered in this study.

This article presents the rationale for the need to take into account and assess natural capital as an important factor for viable managerial decision-making concerning the study, use and reproduction of natural resources in the interests of sustainable development. The activity of authorities in Tomsk oblast was used as an example in examining the issues related to taking into account and assessing natural capital and ecosystem services into the system of managerial decision-making. We used strategic and normative documents of Tomsk oblast, departmental information and material from previous research into assessments of natural capital. A rationale is given for the need to improve the institutional conditions for proper inventory and assessment of all functions of natural capital and ecosystems in managerial decision-making, namely the development of the monitoring system for economic value in the sphere of environmental management which is based on the system of ecological-economic accounting and constitutes a set of coherent statistical indicators reflecting the status of natural capital. The mechanism is suggested for generation of the information-methodological base of economic assessment of natural capital. It is determined that a qualitatively new information basis integrated into the system of regional management. Qualitatively new information basis integrated into the regional government system will make it possible not to simply obtain information on the flows of expenditures and benefits in the sphere of environmental management, but also to ensure interaction between state and municipal authorities and with organizations and the population. The monitoring system for economic value of natural capital and ecosystem services integrated into the region’s executive bodies will permit adaptive governance of environmental management of the region in the face of changes and uncertainty.

The problem of freeing the country’s economy from commodity dependence is discussed. The potential for increasing the depth of processing of extracted raw materials and semi-products manufactured by enterprises of Irkutsk oblast is considered. Irkutsk oblast is one of the largest industrial federal subjects of the Russian Federation with a highly specific structure of indus tries. It combines an advanced extractive industry (production of oil, gold, iron ore, coal, salt and gypsum as well as logging) with multisectoral mechanical engineering (aircraft industry, manufacture of various machinery and equipment, electrical prod ucts, switching products and instruments). It also includes the advanced electric-power (absolutely dominated by the hydroelec tric power component), aluminum and nuclear industries, and the chemical and forestry complex. The proportion of their products in the country’s economy is quite large. Most of these products are exported in the form of semi-products for a further processing to other regions of the country or to other countries. The range of interests of various entities is identified, which can influence the solution to the problem under consideration. Such entities can include society (the country’s population), the terri tory represented by its population, a corporation, a company, an industrial enterprise, and separate entrepreneurs. It is shown that it is impossible and inappropriate to fully process all semi-products and raw materials produced by the regional industry to obtain products for final consumption, due to economic, transportation and other reasons. However, a processing of them within economically justified limits is highly desirable in order for Irkutsk oblast to gain additional benefits in the form of tax revenues to the budget, job creation and an increase in charitable donations. A rationally is given to the need to do research in order to determine the scope of manufacture of products for final consumption in Irkutsk oblast.

Presented are the technique and results of studying the landscape structure of the north-west of Western Siberia on the basis of the Hansen mosaic consisting of elements covering the entire territory of the Earth. To study of this area used a synthesis of classical methods of thematic system mapping as described in the doctrine of geosystems of V. B. Sochava, and automated interpretation of remote sensing data and mapping using GIS technologies. The method of geoinformational mapping of the landscape structure with the use of MultiSpec and Quantum GIS software programs for the purpose of drawing up real-time raster landscape maps is shown. In drawing up the map and the legend, the principle of geomic system-hierarchical representation of the territory as a complex multi-level “bottom-up” structure from topological-level geosystems (groups and classes of landscape facies) to regional-level geosystems (geoms, groups and classes geoms) was used. Compilation of operational raster landscape maps of the north-west of Western Siberia involved multilevel automated interpretation of the Hansen mosaic and mapping of areas (clusters) on images with different brightness characteristics of the landscape structure of key areas and stationary physical and geographical profiles. A characteristic of this approach is also the use of a dynamic classification of geosystems based on the study of their variable states. Such an approach permits a monitoring of changes in landscape structure and its areas and the intensity of anthropogenic impacts on forest and marsh landscapes, and determination of permissible loads on geosystems in areas with high technogenic load of the oil and gas complex represented by the north-west of Siberia. An automated processing of data based on a supervised classification of territorial objects allows for the elimination of inaccuracies arising in visual image interpretation. Raster landscape maps can be used both for a further creation of vector maps and as an real-time information base for purposes of environmental management and protection.

Presented are the technique and results of studying the landscape structure of the north-west of Western Siberia on the basis of the Hansen mosaic consisting of elements covering the entire territory of the Earth. To study of this area used a synthesis of classical methods of thematic system mapping as described in the doctrine of geosystems of V. B. Sochava, and automated interpretation of remote sensing data and mapping using GIS technologies. The method of geoinformational mapping of the landscape structure with the use of MultiSpec and Quantum GIS software programs for the purpose of drawing up real-time raster landscape maps is shown. In drawing up the map and the legend, the principle of geomic system-hierarchical representation of the territory as a complex multi-level “bottom-up” structure from topological-level geosystems (groups and classes of landscape facies) to regional-level geosystems (geoms, groups and classes geoms) was used. Compilation of operational raster landscape maps of the north-west of Western Siberia involved multilevel automated interpretation of the Hansen mosaic and mapping of areas (clusters) on images with different brightness characteristics of the landscape structure of key areas and stationary physical and geographical profiles. A characteristic of this approach is also the use of a dynamic classification of geosystems based on the study of their variable states. Such an approach permits a monitoring of changes in landscape structure and its areas and the intensity of anthropogenic impacts on forest and marsh landscapes, and determination of permissible loads on geosystems in areas with high technogenic load of the oil and gas complex represented by the north-west of Siberia. An automated processing of data based on a supervised classification of territorial objects allows for the elimination of inaccuracies arising in visual image interpretation. Raster landscape maps can be used both for a further creation of vector maps and as an real-time information base for purposes of environmental management and protection.

A new technique for compiling vegetation maps on the basis of two-stage technology is presented. It includes a preliminary assessment of the state of vegetation, and a classification with training samples with the simultaneous use of the digital basemap (GlobCover, 2009) and multispectral images of very high spatial resolution (Alos and Rapideye). We examine the specific features of spectral reflection of vegetation and the vegetation indices for the analysis of vegetation viability. We developed the structuring of plant communities of the study area and the referencing of standard types to the GlobCover classes used as the basis. The possibilities of a multispectral classification have been studied on the basis of very high resolution images in the context of the study territory and the GlobCover classes. Land cover maps are obtained on the basis of training samples and the most plausible classification. The vegetation dynamics (2009-2012) has been investigated for some areas of Vostochnyi Cosmodrome occupied by facilities under construction. Specifically, updates were made concerning infrastructure development, the devastation of woody vegetation, etc. A new method of obtaining vegetation maps is proposed, based on using a global digital basemap and high spa tial resolution images for the desired local areas.

A study was made of the influence of extraction of lead and zinc ores in the northern part of Viet Nam (the Red river basin, Chodon district of Bac Can Province, and the basins of the Dai, Ban Thi, Ta Dieng and Cau rivers). Background concentrations of macro- and microelements and biogenic elements are determined in the river waters and water extracts from bottom sediments of small streams of the study area. A significance exceedance of background concentrations was revealed in stretches of the headwaters of the Ban Thi and Dai rivers caused by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors. It is established that the river waters near the pollution sources contain increased (compared with the geochemical background) concentrations of Zn, Pb, Fe, Ni, Co, As, Bi, Cd, Cs, Sb, Ag, NO2- and SO42-. The waters are estimated as moderately and heavily polluted, and at the other points as minimally polluted. It is determined that the level of accumulation of matter in water extracts from bottom sediments with respect to the geochemical background in the vicinity of the ore dressing factories corresponds to weakly and heavily polluted bottom sediments, and further downstream, to the minimum level of pollution. It is shown that the influence of extraction of lead and zinc ores on the state of small streams is observed in stretches as long as 11-12 km (with a maximum in stretches of up to 4.5 km). The mathematical model of distribution of Pb and Zn distribution in the river waters of the study area has been developed and tested.

We examine functional geography as a part of the theory of functional systems, the subject matter of which now involves the cause-effect relationships of the influence of the factors and conditions on processes and phenomena of a different origin. Within the framework of this scientific and geographical direction, most attention is concentrated on the study into the environ mental conditions, the methods of taking them into account in calculation formulas, analysis of critical levels of variability, and on the search for environmental invariants. By taking into consideration the distinguishing features of the environment, geography provides an informational basis for solving applied problems in other fields of knowledge, proves the environmental relativity and geographical determinism of the manifestation of the laws of the functioning of nature and society. The article discusses the re lationship between structure, dynamics and functioning in geographical studies, presents the theoretical and mathematical bases for modelling the functional features of geosystems and substantiates the functional approach and the corresponding models. The functions of geosystems are investigated and modelled in the form of the interaction of their components, the characteristics of which are regarded as the factors that jointly influence the degree of manifestation of these functions. It is shown that the pos sibility of expl aining the regu larities of the functioning of geographical systems is ensured are provided by the use of the logarith mic scale of the characteristics of the influencing factors.