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Philosophy of Sciences

2022 year, number 1

1.
THE MATERIALISTIC COMPONENT IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF R. DESCARTES: ITS PRESENCE IN THE NTERPRETATION OF THE CORRELATION OF THE HUMAN MIND AND THE FUNCTIONING OF HIS BRAIN

Vasiliy Pavlovich Goran
Institute of Philosophy and Law, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 8, Nikolaev st., Novosibirsk, 630090, Russia
Keywords: Descartes, philosophy, incorporeal substance, corporeal substance, human mind, human brain, God, objective idealism, irrationalism, materialism

Abstract >>
The article notes that Descartes asserted that bodily movements enter the mind of a human directly from his nervous system. Recognizing also that a human’s body is controlled by his incorporeal mind, as well as that the mind is localized in the structure of the bodily human brain, Descartes actually ignored his own statement about the independent, moreover substantial, status of the mind in relation to the human body and, therefore, about their absolute isolation from each other. It is revealed that Descartes virtually adhered directly to the viewpoint that thinking is a manifestation of the functioning of a specific part of the human corporeal brain. Thus, it is established that there is not only an objective-idealistic, but also a materialistic component in the interpretation of the relationship of the human mind and the functioning of his brain. The conclusion is also made that Descartes was aware of the presence of this materialistic component in his works. Because in fear of the inquisition, the philosopher stated his views in a way that not only would not show this component explicitly and clearly, but, on the contrary, would remain it as concealed to readers as possible, including by parallel statements about his adherence to an objectively idealistic viewpoint in the form of faith in the Christian god.



2.
WHERE THE PRINCIPLES COME FROM

Dmitry Gennadievich Egorov1,2
1Academy of the FPS of Russia, 28, Zonalnoe Rd., Pskov, 180014, Russa
2Pskov State University, 2, Lenin sq., Pskov, 180000, Russia
Keywords: induction, Plato, principle, theory

Abstract >>
The study deals with the substantiation of the following theses: a) the nature of the principles in scientific theories is Plato’s world of ideas; b) any other respond to this question is inadequate and/or internally inconsistent. The problem of the nature of the principles may be called the basic problem in the philosophy of science, because the principles determine completely the content of any theory. Plato was the first to answer the question “where do the principles come from?”. He claimed that any genuine knowledge is the soul’s memory of the world of ideas; the possibility of formating the prerequisites of scientific theories is a consequence of the involvement of the soul in the world of ideas. The alternative (and, in fact, the only real one) is F. Bacon’s empirical inductivism. However, this approach is internally inconsistent: nothing follows from the facts alone, because the inductive conclusion already presupposes a certain general thesis as its basis. Therefore, it is not like the inductive derivation of the principles is complicated or inefficient, but it is merely impossible. And if the principles of theories cannot be got from experience, then they are a priori.



3.
SCIENTIFIC ACTIVITY AS AN ADVANCE TO THE "SIGNIFICANT OTHER"

Igor Vasilievich Anokhov
JSC Railway Research Institute, 10, 3d Mytischinskaya st., Moscow, 129626, Russia
Keywords: science, scientometry, motivation, motive, person, significant other, the pleasant, the useful, the noble, the holy, ecumenical, anecumene

Abstract >>
The article is aimed at studying the causes of scientific activity, the value of which is first realized individually and only then recognized by small groups of people, owners of capital, politicians and society as a whole. The pursuit of scientific research may be considered as a way of individual interaction with the “Significant Other”, which begins at a person’s birth and continues throughout his life. As his awareness grows, he discovers new facets of the “Significant Other”, perceiving it first as the pleasant (in the process of physiological consumption), then as the useful (as a source of material and immaterial benefits), the noble (identifying the “Significant Other” with his small group) and, finally, as the holy (as a source of civilizational benefits). Rising to each new stage of interaction with the “Significant Other”, a person is guided by fundamentally different motives, values and meanings, as well as by a deeper understanding of cause-and-effect relationships.



4.
GLOBAL EVOLUTIONISM AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIETY

Marat Ravgatovich Shagiakhmetov
Municipal Budgetary Institution of Culture “Center of Historical and Cultural Heritage of Chelyabinsk”, Chelyabinsk, Svoboda av, 60, 454091, Russia
Keywords: evolution, natural selection, synergetics, thinking, worldview, scientific picture of the world, general theory of systems, variability, heredity

Abstract >>
In considering the formation of the theory of global evolutionism as a necessary element in the comprehension of the unity of the world, the author proceeds from the need for a level of thinking adequate to the unity and related to the scientific picture of the world. In the author’s view, given the systemic organization of nature, the basis of the scientific picture of the world is the general theory of the system of nature, according to which the structure of nature is the alternation and interdependent development of opposite systems: a complete system of heterogeneous elements and a discrete system of objects of the same kind. The revealed structure makes it possible to comprehend the mechanism of natural selection and self-organization as a manifestation of the development of these opposite systems - as the interdependent development of autonomy and association. The driver of evolution is the interaction of variability and identity, which has the form of repeatability in the inorganic world, the form of heredity in the living nature; in human society, the driver takes the form of interaction of activity and conservatism. With the rise of the mind, man leaves the system of biogeocenosis, settles on the planet and interacts with the nature of the planet as a whole, forming a new system of “man and nature”, where the interaction of man and nature is mediated by the system of “public consciousness and public practice”. The evolution of consciousness comes to the fore; transformations of thinking and ideas become the subject of selection in the system of society.



5.
CONCEPTUAL AND FORMAL RIGOR OF MATHEATICAL PROOF

Vitaliy Valentinovich Tselishchev, Aleksandr Valerievich Khlebalin
Institute of Philosophy and Law, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 8 Nikolaeva str., Novosibirsk, 630090, Russia
Keywords: languages of formalization, content of mathematical proof, rigor and clarity of proof

Abstract >>
The article discusses the relationship between clarity and rigor as characteristics of a mathematical argument and the achievement of proof by means of formalization. It is shown that the project of providing the connection between these characteristics, which is proclaimed by D. Hilbert, by means of formalization turns out to be unfeasible at the current stage because of the lack of formalization tools that preserve the content of mathematical reasoning. The requirements for the formalization tools which are necessary to implement Hilbert’s strategy are set out. In addition, a strategy is proposed for studying the dynamic relationship between formalization and the content of a mathematical theory, as well as their contribution to understanding the mathematical proof, which enables to overcome the apparent gap between meaningful and formalized mathematical theories with regard to the characteristics of clarity and rigor.



6.
THE GETTIER PROBLEM AND LEWIS'S CONTEXTUALISM

Igor Evgenievich Pris
Institute of Philosophy, National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, 1/2, Surganov st., Minsk, 220072, Belarus
Keywords: Gettier problem, epistemic contextualism, Lewis, Wittgenstein hinge propositions, Williamson, evidence, knowledge first epistemology, context

Abstract >>
The contextual definition of knowledge proposed by D. Lewis does not solve the Gettier problem. Rather, the problems which Lewis’s approach faces indicate that a satisfactory epistemological theory must accept the primacy of knowledge and the equivalence of knowledge and evidence, which leads to T. Williamson’s knowledge first epistemology. The rules which Lewis introduces for determining the relevant possible scenarios and which should be taken into account in his approach to knowledge are ad hoc . In particular, Lewis admits that he does not know how to reformulate the resemblance rule, so as to exclude the scenario of radical skepticism in a way that is not ad hoc . As a general principle for Lewis’s rules, we propose the principle of family resemblance, understood as the existence of a common Wittgensteinian rule and, in particular, the existence of common hinge propositions. Adjusted accordingly, Lewis’s definition of knowledge is compatible with both Wittgenstein’s hinge epistemology and Williamson’s knowledge first approach.



7.
THE BASIC PROBLEM OF PHILOSOPHY AND THE MEASUREMENT PROBLEM IN QUANTUM MECHANICS

Anna Yurievna Storozhuk
Institute of Philosophy and Law, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 8, Nikolaev st., Novosibirsk, 630090, Russia
Keywords: matter, consciousness, measurement problem

Abstract >>
In its classical formulation, the basic problem of philosophy opposes the material and the ideal. Besides philosophy, the opposition of spirit and matter occurs in many areas, including natural sciences, where it often results in complex problems. One of these is the measurement problem in quantum mechanics. To obtain an effect perceived by the observer, the measured particle should be brought into interaction with the macro-instrument, which leads to a change in the initial parameters of the particle. That is, the observer influences the quantum system, and in an unpredictable probabilistic way. This situation results in epistemological difficulties and raises questions about the cognizability of the world, the violation of causal determinism, etc. For a science that studies the material world and aims at the ideals of objectivity, the perception of the possible influence of the observer’s consciousness on the measurement process is a problematic moment. The analysis shows that attempts to solve the basic problem of philosophy are based on softening the mentioned opposition by introducing an intermediary. It is shown that if we assume the existence of a link between matter and spirit, then the problem of quantum-mechanical measurements can be considered in an unexpected aspect, namely in terms of thermodynamics, which make it possible to provide a natural interpretation of the quantum-mechanical uncertainty arising in the course of measurements.



8.
ECONOMIC BEHAVIOR OF PRIMATES AND "PERSPECTIVES" OF NEUROECONOMICS

Dmitriy Vladimirovich Vinnik
University under the Government of the Russian Federation, 49, Leningradsky av., 125993, Moscow, Russia
Keywords: neuroeconomics, ethology, capuchins, primates, rationality, economic behavior, neuroimaging, preferences, rational choice

Abstract >>
The study of primates demonstrates that economic behavior is not specifically human at the level of elementary actions such as rating of benefits, risks and decision-making. Behavioral experiments on primates and humans using neuroimaging tools are theoretically capable to reveal the neurophysiological substrate responsible for type of behavior known as economic and construed as rational. These limitations can partially be overcome only by real-time invasive neurovisualisation in real economic conditions. However, this is obviously unacceptable on ethical grounds. Moreover, the most representative neuroimaging tools can only be used in stationary conditions. An approach is proposed based on analysis of behavioral bigdata collected from mobile devices. Some clusters of these data directly reflect economic behavior, while other data represent related cognitive functions



9.
THE PROBLEM OF "FUNCTIONAL" DISEASES IN MODERN CLINICAL MEDICINE: PHILOSOPHICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL CRITICAL ANALYSIS

Vladimir Aleksandrovich Karpin1, Vladislav Denisovich Sokolov2
1Surgut State University, 1, Lenin av., Surgut, 628412, Russia
2Medical Academy of Crimean Federal University, Lenin Boulevard, 5/7, Simferopol, 7295006, Republic of Crimea, Russia
Keywords: structure and function, functional diseases, philosophical and methodological analysis, failure of functionalism

Abstract >>
The division of diseases into organic and functional has its own long history and, despite the significantly increased technical capabilities of studying the structural and functional features of vital activity both in normal and in various pathological processes, still continues to divide scientists into two opposite camps. The article provides a brief historical and philosophical analysis of the problem under study in an attempt to prove the inconsistency of the functional concept of general human pathology. As an example, the most common functional diseases of the gastrointestinal tract are given, in which structural disorders are localized in the central nervous system.



10.
ÎOBSERVATIONS OF TRANSITES OF VENUS ON A DISK OF THE SUN IN OWN AND HISTORICAL EXPERIENCE

Alexei Georgievich Pakhomov
Peoples' Friendship University, 6 Miclukho-Maklaya st., 117198, Moscow, Russia
Keywords: philosophy, astronomical observations, history of astronomy, atmosphere of Venus, the phenomenon of Lomonosov, verification, short-term phenomena, reflection

Abstract >>
Comparison of descriptions of historical observations of passage of Venus on a disk of the Sun on May, 26th, 1761, on May, 23-24rd, 1769 is spent and on December, 8-9th, 1874 with my personal observations on June, 8th, 2004 and on June, 6th, 2012 the opportunity of detection atmosphere of Venus Is studied at pass off the planet from the solar disk. From the point of view of comparison with my observations of transites 2004 and 2012, are especially interesting descriptions of observations 1874 executed in Odessa, Teheran and Luxor. Is considered extreme states of consciousness during transient astronomical observations and an opportunity of their reflection. Carefulness and attentiveness are connected with short duration and a rarity of the phenomenon. Observation of transites of Venus on a disk of the Sun are interesting to verification of historical and own observant experience.